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Have you ever been at a social event where people are talking about something with which you’re not familiar, like fintech, but you’re a little embarrassed to admit you don’t know what it is?

Or worse, when you’re at work and colleagues are using an acronym or educational term that everyone seems to know…except you. You think, As an educator, I should know what he’s talking about so I’m not going to ask. Embarrassing, right? I’ve been there, believe me.

A friend told me the other day that she went through the interview process for her first teaching job. After college she served in the Peace Corps and is bilingual in English and Spanish. She returned to the US and got her teaching credential. She was near tears after an interview for her job of choice because she felt like she blew the interview. “They threw so many terms and acronyms at me that I didn’t know! It was really uncomfortable,” she exclaimed with audible tension in her voice.

We do have a lot of terminology and acronyms in education, and new terms seem to crop up regularly. When it comes to English learners, different terms are used in different geographical regions, certain terms are preferred over others by some groups or organizations, and some terms lack universal agreement on their meaning.

By the way, she got the job. Apparently even educators realize that it takes time and experience to master Educationese.

In this blog, I will attempt to create a primer for those of you who find yourselves perplexed by the wide variety of terms used for students who are not yet fully proficient in academic English and qualify for language support services. (Notice how I had to work hard not to use one of the terms below?!) I’ll do my best to define terms as I understand them; terminology is ever-evolving.

English learners (EL), or English language learners (ELL). These terms are currently most commonly used and are straightforward descriptors of students who are learning the English language used in schools. The terms imply that another language is spoken at home and that these students are in the process of becoming English-proficient.

Limited English proficient (LEP). No longer used because of its connotation that students having the gift of more than one language are somehow “limited.” However, it is an artifact of the past and as such is in federal law, so the exception is that it is used for reporting/accountability purposes.

English for speakers of other languages (ESOL), and English as a second language (ESL). These terms refer to programs but are sometimes applied to students, as in “She is ESOL” or “We have 37 ESL students in fourth grade.”

Second language learner. Used widely internationally and in the literature to indicate a student who is learning the mainstream, or official, language used in a country’s schools. In the U.S., it is English.

English as an Additional Language (EAL) is another term that is used more internationally than in the U.S. but it aptly describes this population. These are children who are adding English to their linguistic repertoire.  English may be their second language or their fifth.

Ever-ELL. This term is used typically for research purposes. It is assigned to a student who has been designated as an English learner at some point in his or her school career. The category accounts for students who become English proficient but at some point were English learners. They are distinct from native English-speaking students.

Never-ELL, English only (EO), or native English speaker. These terms all refer to students whose home language is English and English is the student’s first or native language. Some concern about English Only as a designation is that it connotes monolingualism when that may not be accurate.

Emergent bilingual (EB). Becoming more widely used as another term for a student who is not yet proficient in English but is learning English. The term has an aspirational connotation, implying that these students will end up as bilingual individuals.

Dual language learner (DLL). When referring to young children ages birth to 5 in their homes, communities, or early care and education programs, the term “dual language learners” or “DLLs” is most often used. the term “English learners” or “ELs” is most often used. The term “English learners” or “ELs” is most often used when referring to children ages 5 and older in the pre-K to 12 education system and the term “DLLs/ELs” is often used for the broader group of children and adolescents ages birth to 21.

Speakers of languages other than English (LOTE) or Primary home language other than English (PHLOTE). These terms accurately depict students who have the asset of one or more languages in their repertoire. Not used widely at this point.

Non-English Language Background  (NELB) is a broad term that includes English learners and bilingual/multilingual children and is similar to LOTE and PHLOTE, above.

Linguistically diverse. A broader term that includes students who are not yet proficient in academic English and also those students who speak a non-standard form of English such as speakers of African American vernacular English (AAVE), Creole, or Hawaiian Pidgin English.

Long-term English Learners (LTEL). These students have been enrolled in U.S. schools and designated as English learners for six or more years, many since kindergarten. Definitions and classification criteria vary by state and district. Some specify fewer years as EL or differ on criteria regarding levels of progress toward English proficiency and academic levels.

Students with interrupted formal education (SIFE) and Students with limited or interrupted formal education (SLIFE). These terms are used specifically with Newcomer students who have had interruptions in their educational backgrounds of more than two years or, in the case of SLIFE, may have had limited formal education before enrolling in U.S. schools.

The last two terms are useful for labeling students in particular circumstances so that schools can provide appropriate programs and services for them.

As you can see, we’ve outdone ourselves with the number of terms for students learning English as an additional language. Terms that better describe the unique needs of subgroups of learners are useful, e.g. LTELs, DLL and SIFE. However, it would be helpful to educators and researchers – and students and their parents – to use one universally agreed-upon term for each subgroup rather than a variety of terms for the same students. But, when it comes to acronyms and terminology, if past practice in education is an indicator….I won’t hold my breath.

I’ve been around long enough to remember the prominent and divisive debates about bilingual education and whether or not English should be the only language of instruction in U.S. schools. Some of the arguments — both for and against — were as steeped in ideology as they were in fact, but that is often the case with issues that hit folks at the core of what they think should and shouldn’t be. Things have simmered down a bit and it seems that discourse around bilingualism tends to be more about research demonstrating the advantages bilinguals have over monolinguals.

In recent years, dual immersion programs have grown in popularity in the U.S. In these schools, native English speakers learn a target language (e.g., Spanish or Chinese) alongside classmates who speak the target language and are learning English. In fact, dual immersion schools often have waiting lists for enrollment. Apparently, the number of parents who want their children to be bilingual and biliterate exceeds the current capacity of dual immersion schools.

Worldwide, the number of bilingual individuals is steadily growing because of increased economic globalization and migration. Nearly 66% of the world is bilingual, and many of those individuals speak more than two languages. In the United States, the number children between the ages of 5 and 17 years old who speak a language other than English at home exceeds 20%.

Bilingual students in the U.S. are not necessarily biliterate. There are obvious advantages to being able to speak other languages but it’s even more of a plus to be able to read, write, speak, and understand more than one language. A movement is growing in the U.S. to encourage, recognize, and affirm biliteracy through the Seal of Biliteracy, an award given by a school, district, or county office of education to students who have studied and attained proficiency in two or more languages by high school graduation. Currently, seventeen states have approved the seal and it being considered by others.

In school settings, there are a number of cognitive and academic benefits of bilingualism. Some include:

• Teaching academic skills, such as reading, in a child’s home language is more effective for second language achievement than simply being immersed in English instruction. So, time spent in high-quality native language literacy instruction may speed up English proficiency in the long run.
• Switching between languages tends to build cognitive flexibility, and bilinguals’ ability to read and think in two languages promotes higher levels of abstract thinking.
• Having greater capacity for attention and task-switching which are critical skills in schooling.
• Understanding math concepts and solving word problems more easily.
• Developing strong thinking skills, including metacognitive capacities for thinking about language and learning other languages.
• Being better able to focus, remember, and make decisions.

There are also social-emotional benefits to bilingualism. Some include:

• Developing of a person’s sense of self is enhanced when she is able to communicate effectively with multigenerational family members, friends, and others in her cultural community.
• Making friends and exploring a culture more deeply is made possible with the ability to talk to others and gain an understanding of their values and perspectives.
• Learning a second language typically contributes to empathy toward limited-English speakers encountered in day-to-day situations. Knowing firsthand how difficult it is to reach native-like fluency in a new language adds an element of understanding towards English learners.

As you can see, the benefits of bilingualism extend beyond the classroom. Advantages begin in early childhood and continue across the lifespan. In fact, bilingualism has been found to delay cognitive decline  in older individuals. So, it seems that bilingualism offers something for every age group.

 

I was recently invited to give a presentation on effective instruction for English learners at a literacy event. Most of the audience were ESL teachers or coordinators who work with English learners.

Once again, I was preaching to the choir.

Now, don’t get me wrong, I enjoy attendees who bring a wealth of experience and have a knowledge foundation in the field of second language acquisition and proven practices for teaching English learners. They offer insights about their own experience, which facilitates rich discussion. They often say that my presentation validated what they are doing and, let’s face it, sometimes teaching can feel like you’re swimming alone in a vast ocean. So, I’m happy to confirm when research supports their practice.

However, it is classroom teachers who most often need information and professional learning opportunities about how to make lessons understandable so that their English learners can participate fully in learning activities. After all, English learners — the fastest growing population in U.S. schools –are in general education classes for the majority of their school day and receive ESL/ELD instruction for only a specific time each day. The essence of teaching English learners effectively is that every lesson is thoughtfully planned so that content is made comprehensible for learners while at the same time ensuring that English language development is part of content lessons. Unfortunately, too often English learners are considered the responsibility of the ESL/ELD specialist and general education teachers aren’t included in professional development about English learner issues.

The same is typically true in other areas as well. In many districts it is rare that special education teachers, for example, are included in professional development about English learners although they likely have students with IEPs who are dually identified: English learners with disabilities.

General education teachers typically receive little professional development in the area of effective teaching for students with disabilities, although most students with learning disabilities spend 80% or more of their in-school time in general education classrooms.(See NCLD report: The State of Learning Disabilities)

Collaboration is increasingly promoted as effective practice, whether it is through cross-disciplinary meetings or by creating and implementing co-teaching partnerships between general education and ESL teachers and between special education and general education teachers.

Yet it is difficult to collaborate when one professional has limited knowledge about the other’s specialization. There are many benefits to having all school personnel meet together for professional learning around a topic, including creating a more cohesive instructional program, and providing opportunities for deeper conversations and for finding solutions for problems of practice.

Cross-pollination amongst educators is healthy and is in the best interest of students. After all, our students don’t fit neatly into the silos we create, do they?

The question seems sort of silly, right?

Language frames, also called sentence frames, are commonly recommended and widely used as a way of providing support for English learners in oral discussions and writing. Examples include:

I agree with ______________ but would also add _____________________.

The reason I think ___________________ is because __________________.

While there are obvious benefits to scaffolding students’ language and use of complete sentences, frames should be used strategically to be effective. Sentence frames are intended to support students in producing language that they wouldn’t be able to produce on their own. The frame provides a model of language that is just beyond their current level of proficiency (a la i + 1). The following are some suggestions for using sentence frames effectively:

• Differentiate frames to match students’ proficiency levels. Although ostensibly frames are designed to help students use appropriate academic language, they are restricting students’ expression and growth when the frames are too simple or too difficult. A frame such as, I think ______ because________, is not advancing proficiency when all students are required to use the frame during a lesson, even those at advanced levels of English proficiency, as well as English-speaking students. With minimal tweaking, teachers can provide a more simplified frame for beginning speakers and more complex sentence structures and vocabulary for more advanced speakers.

 In math, for example, beginning speakers benefit from a frame such as,

The strategy I used was _____________ (counting-on, double facts, doubles plus one),

which provides sentence structure and also gives words from which to choose. Teachers might offer more advanced speakers an open-ended frame that requires them to explain the procedure on their own or make connections such as,

I solved my problem by__________. Or, Your strategy reminds me of____________.

 These frames allow students to extend their expression and use the ideas of others by linking them to solutions and strategies.

 Differentiating frames by proficiency level isn’t hard or time-consuming for teachers to do, and the effort is well worth it. Practice with the right frame may advance students’ English acquisition by allowing them to use language that is appropriate for their level.

• Avoid artificial use of frames. In some classes, teachers insist that each and every student repeat a frame when answering questions or giving their ideas/opinions rather than letting students express themselves naturally. It defeats the purpose of encouraging language growth when students are required to robotically repeat the same frame. That’s not the way authentic discussion occurs. What is intended as a beneficial support ends up being a case of students simply parroting sentences.
• Use discretion to avoid overuse. The intent of frames is to provide students with support so that they can express their ideas more coherently, using correct sentence structure and vocabulary. The idea is that, after repeated use, students internalize the vocabulary and sentence structures and it becomes part of their linguistic repertoire. However, when frames are used excessively their effectiveness is diminished. Instead of being a strategic tool to add to students’ English toolkit, frames become something that students pay little attention to and simply mimic. What is overuse? Well, one example I observed in a primary class was asking each of the 15 students sitting in a circle to say one at a time,

          “Good morning__________. How are you?” The child replies,

          “I’m _________. (uses a word from a list of adjectives) And you?”

          “I’m _________. Thanks for asking.”

Having a routine using this sequence is more effective when the teacher selects a few different students each morning to practice aloud and model for the class a polite greeting using complete sentences. Or, working in partners, the class chorally practices the sequence. But, fifteen separate versions is overkill – and it takes up too much instructional time.

• Remove frames, as needed. Language frames are a scaffold and just as scaffolding is removed from a building once it is no longer needed, frames should be removed once students are proficient enough to use authentic language.  One teacher told me that she doesn’t let her advanced speakers and English-fluent students use the frames she provides for others because she found that using frames stunted the students’ expression and their flow of ideas. Ultimately, all students should have the option of expressing themselves as they like.

Language frames are valuable tools and they support English learners in expressing their ideas orally and in writing. However, they must be used strategically and for a specific purpose. Caution: Avoid sentence frame overkill as well as a one size fits all approach.

Even though English learners are a large and growing part of the U.S. public school population, there are a number of myths and misconceptions about these students that persist. This blog series will attempt to dispel some of those myths and misconceptions. By the way, the myths are discussed in no particular order.

In previous blogs, I addressed these myths:

• Content teachers aren’t language teachers (see previous blog).
• English learners aren’t capable of completing rigorous, grade-level work

Today’s myth is:

• Only English learners benefit when teachers use best practices for ELs (e.g., the SIOP Model)

Although SIOP was designed as an instructional approach for English learners, for years we have heard anecdotal reports that the approach has been effective with all students — those in special education, struggling learners, and students who speak non-standard English. In fact, in our early research two of the middle school teachers piloting SIOP in content classes with English learners also taught a couple periods of gifted and talented classes. They began planning and delivering lessons using SIOP lesson plans and found that gifted students responded positively to SIOP teaching. SIOP’s features — including having clear objectives, an emphasis on student collaboration and discussion, higher order thinking, and opportunities for practice and application of lesson concepts — appealed to these high achieving students. In fact, the project teachers documented the improved achievement of not only their English learners but also the students in their gifted and talented classes.

More recently, a colleague who is a literacy consultant was kind enough to send me the following email when he returned from consulting with a district in another state:

“They mentioned the fine work using SIOP in [District X] – and the powerful results, not just for ELLs and struggling students but across the range of students, including their top performers (i.e. everyone derived notable benefit)…..Of course, a major reason why this worked so well was the coherent/accountable follow through and admin support from Supt to teachers and back!”

It seems reasonable that SIOP teaching would work well for all students because it’s development was grounded in research on effective teaching and the literature on second language acquisition.

The mot recent research studies have shown that all students in SIOP classes outperformed students in control or comparison classes. Studies from the Center for Research on the Educational Achievement and Teaching of English Language Learners (CREATE) showed the same: Best practices for English learners benefitted English speakers as well as English learners.[1]

The conclusion is that native English-speaking students are not disadvantaged when general education teachers use SIOP teaching in content classes, but in fact may actually do better when teachers implement the SIOP Model.

 

[1] Echevarria, J. (2012). Effective Practices for Increasing the Achievement of English Learners. Washington, DC: Center for Research on the Educational Achievement and Teaching of English Language Learners. Retrieved from http://www.cal.org/create/resources/pubs/

Short, D. & Himmel, J. (2013). Moving research on Sheltered Instruction into curriculum and professional development practice. Paper delivered at AERA, San Francisco, CA.