The pandemic has been challenging for all of us — teachers, parents and students. Many English learners, however, are being disproportionately challenged by current modes of service delivery, because of inequitable learning opportunities created by the digital divide.
Even for those students who have adequate devices to use for learning and have sufficient internet connectivity, one reality of the pandemic is reduced instructional time whether it is face-to-face, online, or a hybrid approach. The time that English learners have with teachers should be spent using practices that are most effective in building their English language proficiency so that they can better access grade-level materials and instruction, thus enabling them to participate more fully in class.
Now seems to be a good time to review some of the factors that affect second language acquisition since instructional time is at a premium. In this post, 5 factors from our book, Sheltered Content Instruction, will be discussed along with ideas for enhancing language acquisition.
First, it is important to remember that:
- Language represents only one aspect of an individual. Focus on teaching the whole child rather than viewing language as the only aspect that needs support.
- English learners have language differences, not deficits. Build on the assets students bring from their home language.
- Second language acquisition is a complex process. There are many factors that influence why some students seem to learn English more quickly than others and this can’t be explained by a single factor.
1. Motivation
Recognizing the need to learn the second language and being motivated to do so are key ingredients for second-language learning. Research indicates that some students are motivated to integrate into another language group while others are motivated to learn a new language for practical reasons such as finding a job or passing a test. The latter type of motivation is not as effective in mastering a second language since it tends to involve short-term goals. The desire to integrate into a group increases the likelihood of becoming proficient in the second language because it involves developing personal relationships that are potentially long lasting.
Another way to look at motivation is to think of “investment” as a way to depict the relationship between the learner and the target language (e.g., English). Sometimes a learner may be highly motivated to learn English but may nevertheless have little investment in the language practices of a given classroom. The classroom environment may not be supportive and inclusive, and the student may perceive an uneven balance of power between English speakers and English learners. The resistance to being part of that type of class impacts the student’s language learning.
To enhance language acquisition:
- Examine your own practices and attitudes to ensure that English learners are treated equitably and are regarded as valued members of the class.
- Encourage English learners to develop relationships with English-speaking students by assigning shared responsibilities, having students work collaboratively on assignments, and assign activities that promote getting to know one another. This can be done with remote teaching as well as face-to-face.
- Become familiar with and acknowledge each student’s social/cultural identity. Recognizing a student’s social/cultural identity makes a meaningful connection between a learner’s desire to learn a language and maintaining their own identity.
- Particularly with older learners, be aware of teacher behaviors that may create anxiety, frustration or embarrassment, emotions which can hamper learning.
- Remember without the contextual clues that occur naturally in face-to-face teaching such as teacher facial expression and pointing, English learners in online teaching settings may be less motivated to participate. To the extent possible, be expressive, use bitmojis to convey an idea, and use other visuals to maintain motivation.
2. Personality
Extroverts tend to prefer the social aspects of relationships such as talking, playing, and working in collaborative groups so they have increased opportunities for interaction and practice using English. As a result, they develop social language quickly. Introverts, those quiet or shy students, are temperamentally prone to be reflective and prefer working alone or with a partner rather than in a large group. Therefore, teachers shouldn’t, for example, urge introverted students to speak up in front of the whole class or encourage them to be “more outgoing.” With respect to temperament, there is a saying that extroverts conspire to convert introverts to be like them. Most introverts learn that there are times they need to move out of their comfort zone and be more social, but their innate preferences are not something they will “grow out of.” Likewise, extroverts need to learn, for example, to defer to others rather than dominate a discussion.
Some of the considerations about personality have cultural and linguistic implications as well. While the distribution of introverts and extroverts is found throughout humankind, beginning English learners and newcomer students may resemble introverts in their behaviors. For instance, newcomer students may appear shy and reticent because they are unfamiliar with American educational practices such as working collaboratively with peers, engaging in contests and participating in discussions. Beginning English speakers will likely be reserved about speaking English aloud and shouldn’t be forced to speak before they are ready, especially in front of the class.
To enhance language acquisition:
- Remember that students are more likely to practice using English when they are in a setting that is comfortable for them.
- Within activities that appeal to extroverts such as competitive games and assignments, create roles for introverts where they will be more comfortable such as letting them judge a contest, document a discussion, or create questions.
- Respect student differences and, to the extent possible, provide opportunities for each to shine in their own way.
- Keep in mind that both types of students can learn to interact well with peers but don’t force socialization that may intimidate some students.
- With remote teaching, introverts may be more comfortable with their camera off. Please see https://twitter.com/MrsParkShine/status/1300401054404796416 for an excellent idea by Esther Park to accommodate different learners in an online setting.
3. First-Language Development
Learning a first language, although a natural process, is complex and requires a minimum of 12 years. Although a tremendous amount of language is acquired from birth to age 5, children from ages 6 to 12 continue to develop more sophisticated forms of semantics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and elaborated speech. Certain aspects of language development such as vocabulary expansion continue for a lifetime.
Research reveals that one’s level of first-language development significantly influences second-language development. Students who have had the benefit of schooling in their first language are more efficient at acquiring a new language. Strong oral language and literacy skills developed in the home language provide a solid basis for the acquisition of language, literacy, and other academic skills in English. Those who achieve full cognitive development in both languages will gain the cognitive benefits of biliteracy; when development of the first language is discontinued, there actually may be negative consequences. Many English learners who have low literacy levels find it difficult to catch up academically in the second language, a language they do not yet fully comprehend. Continued first-language instruction is beneficial since the deeper the conceptual foundation, the higher the ability to build.
To enhance language acquisition:
- Do not discourage or restrict use of students’ first language at school or at home. (Obvious exceptions would be tasks that require the use of English, such as oral presentations, written assignments or assignments designed to practice using academic English.) Students benefit from clarifying concepts, information and terminology in their first language with peers or the teacher so that their learning doesn’t lag. The more students develop their first language, the better prepared they will be to learn English.
- Encourage parents to create a language-rich home by talking, singing, telling stories, and so forth. When parents use their native language, their children become familiar with word order and patterns, rhyming, vocabulary, and concept development—as well as background knowledge upon which to build. Sending home books or links to websites in their home language can also foster language and literacy development.
- With time at home, remote teaching may benefit English learners in balancing assignments and activities completed in their first language with family support, and assignments in English.
- Explore offering dual language or bilingual programs at your school so that students can develop a strong foundation in their home language.
4. Access to the Language
Research shows that English learners benefit from opportunities to use the language with English speakers, and adolescents demonstrated stronger English proficiency outcomes when they had opportunities to use English in informal settings such as in their neighborhoods, at work, with friends and in the hallways of school. In classrooms, language acquisition is fostered when English learners work in collaborative groups with English speakers since these activities allow English learners to practice using English and the context itself makes English accessible. However, simply hearing the language doesn’t provide access. Many of us come into contact with speakers of other languages in various settings, but we don’t actually learn the language when we hear it spoken. In the same way, English learners may spend many hours hearing English in school without really accessing it in any meaningful way. Learning requires contextual clues to make the message understandable, which is why conversational language is more readily developed than academic language. Social conversations are inherently full of clues while academic language is much more decontextualized and requires high-quality instruction to be accessible for English learners.
To enhance language acquisition:
- Plan multiple opportunities for English learners to interact with English-speaking students through partner work, group projects, paired reading and other ways to ensure that English learners are accessing the language in meaningful ways.
- With remote learning, English learners might partner with English speakers in breakout rooms to engage in partner reading and other activities.
- Encourage participation in extra-curricular activities so that English learners have access to English-speaking peers outside of the classroom.
- Use teaching techniques that make academic content comprehensible for English learners so that they can more easily access its meaning. (See #5 below)
5. Quality of Instruction
Fundamentally, effective instruction begins with having high expectations for students. The attitude and expectation that English learners can and will learn grade-level material are reflected in high-quality instructional practices:
- Follow consistent daily routines
- Engage in lesson preparation
- Use visuals, multimedia and other contextual clues to make teaching meaningful
- Build on students’ background knowledge and experiences
- Model use of instructional strategies
- Acknowledge sociocultural factors that affect English learners
- Implement techniques for differentiating instruction
- Provide opportunities for students to practice and apply new information and skills
- Use assessment-informed instruction
These practices positively impact English learner outcomes, including language acquisition. Researchers have suggested that many learning problems experienced by students learning English are pedagogically induced, or the result of instructional practices that are not suited to the learner, sometimes resulting in inappropriate placement in special education. Effective language learning takes place in well-organized classrooms where teachers use instructional practices that are effective for English learners. If instruction is not made comprehensible and accessible for students, the opportunity to learn both English and academic content material decreases.
To enhance language acquisition:
- Develop clear content and language objectives so that students know which aspect of language is the focus of the lesson.
- Use instruction that is based on research-validated practices, listed above.
- Provide opportunities for interaction with the teacher and peers that allow students to use elaborated language around relevant topics, building English skills while at the same time developing content knowledge.
Some of the suggestions for enhancing language acquisition are impeded to one degree or another by remote teaching. However, all can be used at least to some extent depending on your own situation. For example, interaction can take place in online breakout rooms.
These are challenging times for educators. Hopefully this post will serve as a reminder about the linguistic needs of your English learners and provide you with some use-tomorrow ideas to enhance their language acquisition.