Reflections on Teaching Multilingual Learners

The saying, “He who dies with the most toys wins” was popularized in the 1980s on bumper stickers and T shirts, and even made its way into an episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation. Attributed to Malcolm Forbes, it represents an era when acquiring material possessions – or stuff –was the ultimate status symbol. Hopefully, the sentiment of greed the saying represents is as outdated as the saying itself.

In education, the saying, “He or she who has the most words wins” speaks to the importance of vocabulary.  Ok, so I just made the saying up. But, having a robust vocabulary is essential for school success. Those students who know and can use the most words do best in school. For English learners, vocabulary development is critical for overall language proficiency as well as for academic achievement.

Having a strong vocabulary allows English learners to read and comprehend text, to participate in oral discussion and presentation of information, and to express themselves adequately in writing and speaking. Keep in mind, the benefit isn’t simply a list of new words that have been learned. As those new words are learned, more is learned about the concepts and images with which the words are associated, which then contributes to facilitating further learning and deeper understanding of words’ meanings.

Here are 3 ways to develop vocabulary with English learners:

1. Explicitly teach words.  There’s little benefit to putting isolated vocabulary terms on the board and asking English learners to copy them and look up their definitions in the dictionary. Many of the words in the definitions are also unfamiliar to these students, so the activity can be meaningless – and frustrating. Although using the dictionary is an important school skill to learn, it isn’t the most effective way to learn the meaning of new words. Instead, teachers select a specific set of words from the texts and other materials students will be expected to read. These words may be supplemented by cross-curricular words found in academic word lists such as contrast, analyze, or variable. The selected set of words should be used in multiple ways in order to deepen understanding. Some ways of providing multiple exposures to the words include:

• Pointing out the words when they appear in the text so students see the words in context;
• Using picture dictionaries that have the word, definition, and pictorial representation for reference;
• Incorporating into lessons ways for students to use and practice the words in peer discussions, individual activities, and teacher-led groups;
• Teaching words in context, rather than in isolation, by providing student-friendly definitions, creating sentences using the words, showing pictures, giving examples students can relate to, and the like.

2. Provide opportunities for incidental learning.  English learners can learn the meaning of words from coming across them in print, and orally. But they must come across the words more than once or even twice; there must be multiple exposures in meaningful contexts. This means engaging in meaningful reading experiences, accompanied by discussion and writing. Incidental learning occurs by:

• Allowing time for independent reading of books or online resources that are appropriate for English learners’ language and literacy levels;
• Providing opportunities for students to listen to texts.

It is important to note that while English learners acquire vocabulary incidentally, through use, intentional learning tends to be more effective and efficient. Students should be provided with both explicit teaching and incidental learning opportunities to develop and practice using their vocabularies to the fullest.

3. Develop word consciousness. Simply put, this means to help students become interested in words and aware of how they work. Learning about words and playing with words can be great fun. Activities in which students manipulate words, sort words, experiment with creating funny words, and choose words they want to know about are important for vocabulary growth. As students develop word consciousness, they understand that words have meanings and that these meanings are knowable, not some mystery that they can’t figure out. Often, English learners encounter words they can’t understand but don’t know why. Once teachers help them learn more about words and how they work, they’ll be more likely to figure out the meaning of words that trip them up. Some ways to develop word consciousness include:

• Generating words from roots by adding affixes (See example using –port which means, to carry.);
• Talking about the language used by good authors. Pull out a sentence or phrase and discuss its meaning and why the author might have used those particular words. Ask students how the meaning might be conveyed using different words.

How many words should be selected for teaching? There isn’t research to guide precisely how many words to teach, but depending on age, teachers can choose from five to 20 or more words a week to teach.  The best guide might be to ask, “How many words can I teach meaningfully, have kids use to practice and apply their new learning, and assess within a particular lesson?”  This question helps teachers realize that having more words isn’t necessarily better.

There are innumerable ideas and activities for developing vocabulary. But the most bang for the buck comes by being selective and strategic in the words chosen for study, and giving students many different exposures to the words.

 

Post based in part on:

Echevarria, J. & Goldenberg, C. (2017). Second-language learners’ vocabulary and oral language development. Literacy Leadership Brief, International Literacy Association.

Echevarria, J., Vogt, ME., & Short, D. (2017). Making content comprehensible for English learners: The SIOP Model Fifth Ed. New York: Pearson.

Teachers’ expectations for students – indeed, even their attitudes toward them – has a direct influence on students’ performance and impacts their perceptions of themselves as learners. Research over the past several decades shows that teachers treat the students who they consider achievers (thus, have high expectations for them) differently than those for whom they have lower expectations.

How so?

Low expectations are communicated to students by:

• Giving less feedback to them, delving into their answers less deeply, and accepting incorrect answers;
• Calling on them less often and waiting less time for them to answer questions when they are called on;
• Asking them less challenging questions and rewarding them for less rigorous responses;
• Smiling less and making less eye contact with them.

English learners, in particular, are often characterized by what they cannot do: they cannot speak English, they are not prepared to be in mainstream classrooms, they do not understand the culture of schools in the United States, their parents don’t speak English and cannot help them with their schoolwork, they do not do as well academically……. You’ve heard many of these comments that reflect “can’t do” attitudes, I’m sure.

We recognize that there are real challenges in teaching English learners in a language they have not yet mastered, and our research, and that of many others, has focused on strategies and techniques to make content comprehensible for English learners while advancing their English proficiency.

Teacher’s attitudes about working with ELs is often born out of lack of preparation for teaching these students effectively. Even teachers with good intentions may be frustrated if they lack specific knowledge of proven ways of teaching grade-level content so that it is comprehensible for English learners and assists in developing their language proficiency.

There are many well-intentioned teachers whose teaching practices unintentionally communicate low expectations and deny English learners access to the education we want for them and that they deserve. From our book, No More Low Expectations for English Learners, consider the following chart:There are many ways to communicate high expectations to English learners including:

• Recognizing and capitalizing on the assets that students bring: their experiences, language, and background knowledge that may not align precisely with the teaching processes in U.S. schools.
• Accepting the level of language that students are able to produce and providing supports to help them understand the content of lessons. Developing second language proficiency is a developmental process that takes time – 4-6 years. Students who are trying their hardest may appear passive because they don’t yet have the language to express themselves or may not completely understand the teacher’s expectations for the lesson.
• Communicating with their families and creating school-family partnerships. Research is clear that family involvement has positive benefits for students.
• Ensuring that English learners have access to grade-level content, including college-prep courses. Just because students don’t yet speak English fluently doesn’t mean that they can’t think about complex ideas and respond to higher order questions, when provided linguistic supports.
• Showing interest in each student, getting to know them and discovering their interests and passions. Greeting students by name and asking a simple question or making a comment communicates that you care: How was the soccer game yesterday? That’s a nice blouse, is it new? How is your mother feeling? I like your haircut! This type of specific attention takes about 5-10 seconds per student so a kind word to each student in class costs less than 5 minutes of instructional time and is a valuable investment in developing relationships.
• Affirming student identity by recognizing that each student has his or her own story. What is her parents’ background? What is her own story? What does she do well (e.g., music, sports, art)? Create opportunities for students to incorporate their heritage, hobbies, and interests into class assignments and share with others. Create a community of learners who know and appreciate one another.
• Providing research-validated instruction to English learners in a supportive environment before suspicion of learning problems creeps in. When English learners struggle academically, the question isn’t, “What’s wrong with this student?” but instead the emphasis is on instruction: “How can we meet the instructional needs of this student?” There is both under- and over-representation of English learners in special education, which is a nagging and complicated issue. For a discussion of RTI and English learners, click here.

Which column in the chart most reflects your own attitudes? It may be uncomfortable to consider but it is important to question whether our instruction is increasing our English learners’ access to academic opportunity or diminishing it. Perhaps even more important is to ask for help when we’re not certain or when we’re in need of support in improving instruction for our students.

Many of you have headed back to school and others will be soon. Back-to-school is typically an exciting time of preparation, new beginnings, and anticipation. There is also a certain amount of nervousness involved, especially for English learners (ELs) who may be anxious about doing well in school.

There are some great blog sites for teachers and parents for making the transition from summer to school smooth. There are also videos that illustrate English learners’ experience in school which reminds us how challenging the first days can be for these students.

In this post, I’ll offer my own tips based on my experiences in working with English learners.

1. Be welcoming in your words and affect. Teachers’ attitudes and behaviors have a tremendous impact on how students feel about themselves as learners and on their academic performance. A smile, eye contact, a kind word, or gesture are simple actions that will go a long way in making English learners feel welcome and that they are a valued members of your class.
2. Learn your students’ names and how to pronounce them correctly. I know from personal experience how embarrassing it can be when a teacher butchers your name or makes a comment such as, “Oh, this is a tough one. Let’s see if I can say it.” Such comments usually incite laughter from other students. One’s name is linked to one’s identity and sense of self. It doesn’t take much effort to practice saying your students’ names correctly and with the same intonation as when saying, for example, Jason Thomas.
3. Display items and visuals around the classroom that represent your students’ cultures and languages such as photos, posters, and books. Use labels on items in English and the students’ languages, and ask students how some words or greetings are said in their home language. In elementary schools, a photo of each student with their name displayed on a wall communicates that every child is equally recognized and valued. A modified version may be devised for secondary students.
4. Communicate high expectations, with support provided. Spell out expectations, generate enthusiasm for the upcoming year, and communicate confidence that all students will be able to achieve their best work. Make sure that ELs know that there will be instructional supports in place to make them successful.
5. Be sensitive about asking the class how they spent their summer, where their family went on vacation, and other kinds of typical back-to-school sharing activities or assignments. Some English learners come from affluent households but statistically speaking, most live in low socioeconomic circumstances so it is unlikely that they attended summer camp or went on a family vacation. When I was a new teacher in an inner city high school, I naively asked my students what they had done during the summer. Many responded that they had mostly stayed indoors and watched TV or had to go to work with their parents. I was amazed at how eager most students were to return from summer break because school provided structure, safety, social interaction, and a purpose to their day.
6. Post the daily schedule and classroom rules/expectations in a visual manner that is easy for English learners to understand, even if they can’t comprehend every word. You may teach a mini-lesson for English learners to be sure that they understand the rules and expectations in a positive way and can participate fully in classroom routines and activities. Set them up for success!
7. Don’t criticize students if they are a day or more late in returning back to school. Teachers are excited about the new school year and it can be understandably disappointing if students aren’t in attendance from the first day when you have spent time and effort establishing a classroom culture and all that that entails. However, it isn’t the student’s fault when she misses some days because her family had other responsibilities to tend to. Just this past year I was observing in a school that had been in session for a little over two weeks. In a 4^th grade classroom that had a high number of English learners, a girl approached the teacher to say she didn’t know what to do for her report, an assignment the other students were working on. The teacher replied that since the girl’s family “chose to take an extra two weeks of vacation in Mexico” she would have to figure it out herself or ask a student. He pointed out that the other children returned to school on time and knew the assignment. Needless to say, I was shocked that a student was made to feel unworthy of help because of circumstances beyond her control. Don’t take your frustrations out on students –ever.

The new school year is a time of excitement, anticipation, and new challenges. Students are more likely to attend school and actively engage in learning when their social, emotional, and intellectual needs are satisfied in the classroom environment. There is a lot that teachers can do to get the school year off to a good start, which may put English learners on a trajectory for tremendous academic and linguistic growth, even for the most reluctant learners.

Hopefully some of these tips will inspire teachers to make their classrooms positive learning environments for every student. Have a great year!

 

How can I tell if an English learner has some type of disability or is struggling because of the language difference?

Oh, the number of times I’ve been asked that question or similar ones!

Often educators are looking for an assessment to use with English learners that will definitively answer the learning disability question when concerns are raised about the academic progress of these students. While assessments are important tools that can provide valuable information, there is much more involved in deciding on appropriate educational services for students. Interpreting test results is only one piece – and results should be interpreted cautiously, keeping in mind the considerations discussed below. By the way, there doesn’t exist one such test —  a magic bullet so to speak.

One of the reasons that Response to Intervention (RTI) was made an option for identifying students with learning disabilities was so that schools could move away from exclusive reliance on testing and the “wait to fail” approach. RTI is a multi-tiered system of support designed to maximize student achievement by catching problems early and providing immediate, targeted intervention. This additional targeted support is intended to ameliorate academic problems by providing students the instruction they need in a small group setting. Some students simply need a boost of instruction to get on track. For those students who don’t respond well to the interventions provided, a team of qualified professionals considers next steps.

Unfortunately, RTI has morphed into a lot of different things in practice with little consistency across schools and districts. As a result, students with learning disabilities are falling through the RTI cracks. Another issue is that in a number of states RTI has been used as a way to delay or deny help to students who are entitled to special education services. The latter practice is so widespread that in 2016 the U.S. Department of Education issued two letters reminding states that intervention strategies cannot be used to delay or deny evaluation of students suspected of having a disability.

So, back to the original question….

The following four factors should be considered during discussions and decision-making when determining instructional services for English learners. Although discussed separately, these factors are interrelated, i.e., culture and background are tightly connected as is English proficiency and high-quality teaching.

1. Opportunity to learn. The “frontline of prevention” of learning problems is Tier 1, or the general education classroom where teachers provide high quality, research-based instruction. When English learners struggle, the question should be, What supports are being provided by the classroom teacher? High quality teaching for English learners offers scaffolds and supports to make grade-level content comprehensible while capitalizing on language development opportunities during lessons – an approach such as SIOP. English learners also require a specific time for ESL teaching to enhance their English language development. Interventions might be warranted for English learners who continue to struggle after they’ve had high quality teaching and opportunities to improve their English proficiency. One caveat: a student may be referred for an evaluation at any time if a disability is suspected. Legally, there is no stipulation that students need to be in the country for a certain amount of time or go through cycles of intervention before being evaluated for eligibility for special education services.
2. Language proficiency, including academic language. English proficiency is the greatest predictor of school success for English learners. But by definition, these students are still in the process of learning English and cannot be expected to perform like native English speakers. Many English learners may communicate quite fluently using social language, but the academic language use required in school is more challenging for them. It is more complex, and uses more sophisticated vocabulary and sentence structures than that used in conversational English. The ability to extract meaning from text or to argue a point verbally or in writing is an essential part of schooling and involves a high level of academic English. Naturally, a student’s level of English proficiency will impact his or her academic performance, including performance on assessments, and is not an indication of a learning problem in and of itself. One question to ask is, Does the student exhibit the same struggles in his or her home language?
3. Background. Isn’t it easier to learn about a topic you already know something about compared to one that is completely new and is riddled with unfamiliar terminology? Of course, and the same is true for our English learners – but with a twist. Students come to school with a wealth of knowledge and their previous cultural, language, and literacy experiences influence their ways of learning. However, these experiences and perspectives don’t always align with the materials used in school, the lessons’ content or teachers’ expectations. To facilitate learning, effective teachers tap into what students already know and build on it. They connect new concepts with students’ experiences and past learning. Sometimes there are gaps in knowledge and skills that need to be filled. The point is that poor academic performance may be related to background and isn’t necessarily an indication of a learning problem.
4. Culture. Cultural norms and values are deeply ingrained in all of us and many different influences make us who we are: religious beliefs and practices, gender, race and ethnicity, socioeconomic level, and geographic region to name a few. English learners, particularly immigrants, may feel distance from peers and teachers because their parents have rules, values, and expectations for them that may differ from those in school. An example I experienced recently was with a taxi driver from Tibet who was a college graduate and had moved away from his girlfriend and job to care for his parents in another state. As we were chatting, he timidly asked about what he viewed as Americans’ cruel treatment of their elderly parents. He was astonished that a son (per his culture) would hire caretakers or, worse yet, place parents in a facility. We explained about American traditions of individualism, self-reliance and independence, and that many parents prefer professional caregivers so that they are not a “burden” to their children. The man expressed gratitude to us for discussing a delicate topic, one that he admitted he had misunderstood. Similar misunderstandings happen in schools. Cultural norms and values that may impact the way students behave or perform academically include notions of modesty and politeness, ways language is learned and used, approaches to problem solving, order of time, and incentives to work. Professionals familiar with students’ cultures must be included in the decision-making process of RTI because culturally appropriate interpretation of behavior and data is critical.

In our book on RTI and English learners, we suggest asking the following questions to distinguish between disability and language difference:

1. Does the student differ significantly from others with similar background (e.g., cultural, geographic, linguistic)?
2. Has his or her family noticed a problem?
3. What about first language development? Was it normal?
4. Is the difficulty due to environmental or economic disadvantage?
5. Is the student making steady progress, regardless of how slow?
6. Has the student had the opportunity to demonstrate knowledge and skills in the home language?
7. Has the student had sufficient opportunities to learn?

Unfortunately, there isn’t an easy way of answering the question of disability or difference. It requires the collective input of family members and education professionals, especially those professionals who know about research-based instruction for English learners, who understand the students’ culture and background, and are familiar with the second language acquisition process.

An advantage for English learners when RTI is implemented well is that the focus isn’t on, “What’s wrong with this student?”

The emphasis is on instruction: “How can we meet the instructional needs of this student?”

 

 

 

 

 

 

Based on Echevarria, Richards-Tutor & Vogt (2015). RTI and English Learners: Using the SIOP Model. Pearson.

 

A colleague, Karen, told me about the struggles her stepson is having in school. He is an English learner who immigrated to the U.S. in fifth grade and although he is very bright, she said, “He has been lost for 2 years in middle school.” She attributes his struggles in large part to a lack of language focus, or language objectives, in lessons.  In social studies, for example, an assignment was to describe geographical features of several regions in the US. He was able to complete the descriptive part of the assignment easily. But, then he had to pick 2 regions and compare and contrast their features. This part tripped him up because he didn’t know the meaning of the terms, compare and contrast. The teacher assumed that all students, including English learners, knew how to select specific features and compare them, and how to contrast features of two different things. With Karen’s help, her stepson learned the meaning of the words, but he still didn’t know how to apply this new word knowledge to the task.

Karen said that it has been hard for her to watch, both as a mother and a professional since she is a SIOP professional development specialist who helps teachers work effectively with English learners. She said, “The teachers in his school don’t have a language development focus for their students – they just talk, talk, talk.”

Why does Karen think language objectives would help her stepson? Because, as teachers plan lessons with language objectives in mind, they are aware of the language demands of the lesson. They are more likely to think about the language students need to be successful in the lesson. Just as content objectives drive the content to be covered in a lesson, language objectives are learning goals related to language.

Most teachers think about the academic vocabulary terms students need to use in a lesson — which is important — but language objectives can be derived from other categories of language  as well such as language skills and functions (e.g., describe, predict, find key details in text), language structures (e.g., passive voice, use of past tense), or language learning strategies that would be helpful (rereading a confusing passage, use of cognates).

In lots of classrooms, objectives may be posted but are essentially ignored. In contrast, language objectives should be posted and reviewed with students so that the language focus of the lesson is transparent.

Here are a few ideas for actively involving students in understanding the lesson’s language objectives. Each takes only 30 seconds to 2 minutes and is an effective way to get students engaged at the beginning of a lesson.

• Chorally read the objectives as a class. Check for understanding and clarify as needed.
• Ask students to repeat the language objectives to a partner.
• Have students do a self-assessment regarding the language objectives, i.e., Is this something that I am confident with or do I need practice?
• Have students discuss with a partner which of the 2 or 3 language objectives you’ve posted is most important to them. As they talk about the objectives, they are using academic language.
• A slight variation is to have students write on a sticky note the most important language objective and then tell a partner why they picked that one. Again, they are practicing English as they discuss the objectives.

At the end of the lesson, review the objectives and ask if each has been met. You might have students write how the objective was met, and ask them to provide evidence for having met the objective. This process serves a number of purposes: it engages students in thinking critically about what they did in the lesson, it provides practice in finding evidence for statements, students review the lesson’s content by virtue of thinking about the language objectives, and they practice using language in the process. It’s a win-win all around!

Sometimes, however, objectives are confused with activities. Language objectives are measurable and are intended to advance students’ language proficiency. Check out the following and see the difference:

1. Students will be able to orally explain the difference between living and non-living things. (Language objective)
2. At the end of this lesson, students will have learned to set up a Bunsen burner, fill a graduated cylinder, and use a triple balance. (Activity)
3. Students will be able to define the meaning of these words: debate, veto, bill. (Language objective)
4. Children will read 2 poems with a partner. (Activity)
5. Students will complete the worksheet. (Activity)

The activities could be written as language objectives (LO) with some tweaking. For example,

Activity: At the end of the lesson, students will have learned how to set up a Bunsen burner, fill a graduated cylinder, and use a triple balance.

LO: Describe a process of how to…… with a partner.

LO: Write the steps for………

 Activity: Children will read 2 poems with a partner.

LO: Students will be able to define key literary terms found in the poem.

LO: Children will orally discuss the main idea of the poem.

Objectives communicate to students what they are going to learn and why they are doing the activity. Activities are intended to be used as a means for achieving specific learning goals; the activity itself is not the goal.

Finally, English learners themselves recognize the value of language objectives. In one research study, we asked both elementary and secondary students about language objectives. The students stated:

“We know what to do”

“That’s how I got better in English because we had language [objectives]”

“The objectives help us to be prepared”